The Java® Language Specification

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The Java® Language Specification
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The Java® Language Specification

Java SE 20 Edition

James Gosling

Bill Joy

Guy Steele

Gilad Bracha

Alex Buckley

Daniel Smith

Gavin Bierman

2023-03-03

Legal Notice

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

1.1. Organization of the Specification
1.2. Example Programs
1.3. Notation
1.4. Relationship to Predefined Classes and Interfaces
1.5. Preview Features
1.6. Feedback
1.7. References

2. Grammars

2.1. Context-Free Grammars
2.2. The Lexical Grammar
2.3. The Syntactic Grammar
2.4. Grammar Notation

3. Lexical Structure

3.1. Unicode

3.2. Lexical Translations

3.3. Unicode Escapes

3.4. Line Terminators

3.5. Input Elements and Tokens

3.10.1. Integer Literals
3.10.2. Floating-Point Literals
3.10.3. Boolean Literals
3.10.4. Character Literals
3.10.5. String Literals
3.10.6. Text Blocks
3.10.7. Escape Sequences
3.10.8. The Null Literal

3.11. Separators

3.12. Operators

4. Types, Values, and Variables

4.1. The Kinds of Types and Values

4.2. Primitive Types and Values

4.2.1. Integral Types and Values
4.2.2. Integer Operations
4.2.3. Floating-Point Types and Values
4.2.4. Floating-Point Operations
4.2.5. The boolean Type and boolean Values

4.3. Reference Types and Values

4.3.1. Objects
4.3.2. The Class Object
4.3.3. The Class String
4.3.4. When Reference Types Are the Same

4.4. Type Variables

4.5. Parameterized Types

4.5.1. Type Arguments of Parameterized Types
4.5.2. Members and Constructors of Parameterized Types

4.6. Type Erasure

4.7. Reifiable Types

4.8. Raw Types

4.9. Intersection Types

4.10. Subtyping

4.10.1. Subtyping among Primitive Types
4.10.2. Subtyping among Class and Interface Types
4.10.3. Subtyping among Array Types
4.10.4. Least Upper Bound
4.10.5. Type Projections

4.11. Where Types Are Used

4.12. Variables

4.12.1. Variables of Primitive Type
4.12.2. Variables of Reference Type
4.12.3. Kinds of Variables
4.12.4. final Variables
4.12.5. Initial Values of Variables
4.12.6. Types, Classes, and Interfaces

5. Conversions and Contexts

5.1. Kinds of Conversion

5.1.1. Identity Conversion

5.1.2. Widening Primitive Conversion

5.1.3. Narrowing Primitive Conversion

5.1.4. Widening and Narrowing Primitive Conversion

5.1.5. Widening Reference Conversion

5.1.6. Narrowing Reference Conversion

5.1.6.1. Allowed Narrowing Reference Conversion
5.1.6.2. Checked and Unchecked Narrowing Reference Conversions
5.1.6.3. Narrowing Reference Conversions at Run Time

5.1.7. Boxing Conversion

5.1.8. Unboxing Conversion

5.1.9. Unchecked Conversion

5.1.10. Capture Conversion

5.1.11. String Conversion

5.1.12. Forbidden Conversions

5.2. Assignment Contexts

5.3. Invocation Contexts

5.4. String Contexts

5.5. Casting Contexts

5.6. Numeric Contexts

6. Names

6.1. Declarations

6.2. Names and Identifiers

6.3. Scope of a Declaration

6.3.1. Scope for Pattern Variables in Expressions

6.3.1.1. Conditional-And Operator &&
6.3.1.2. Conditional-Or Operator ||
6.3.1.3. Logical Complement Operator !
6.3.1.4. Conditional Operator ? :
6.3.1.5. Pattern Match Operator instanceof
6.3.1.6. switch Expressions
6.3.1.7. Parenthesized Expressions

6.3.2. Scope for Pattern Variables in Statements

6.3.2.1. Blocks
6.3.2.2. if Statements
6.3.2.3. while Statements
6.3.2.4. do Statements
6.3.2.5. for Statements
6.3.2.6. switch Statements
6.3.2.7. Labeled Statements

6.4. Shadowing and Obscuring

6.4.1. Shadowing
6.4.2. Obscuring

6.5. Determining the Meaning of a Name

6.5.1. Syntactic Classification of a Name According to Context

6.5.2. Reclassification of Contextually Ambiguous Names

6.5.3. Meaning of Module Names and Package Names

6.5.3.1. Simple Package Names
6.5.3.2. Qualified Package Names

6.5.4. Meaning of PackageOrTypeNames

6.5.4.1. Simple PackageOrTypeNames
6.5.4.2. Qualified PackageOrTypeNames

6.5.5. Meaning of Type Names

6.5.5.1. Simple Type Names
6.5.5.2. Qualified Type Names

6.5.6. Meaning of Expression Names

6.5.6.1. Simple Expression Names
6.5.6.2. Qualified Expression Names

6.5.7. Meaning of Method Names

6.5.7.1. Simple Method Names

6.6. Access Control

6.6.1. Determining Accessibility

6.6.2. Details on protected Access

6.6.2.1. Access to a protected Member
6.6.2.2. Access to a protected Constructor

6.7. Fully Qualified Names and Canonical Names

7. Packages and Modules

7.1. Package Members

7.2. Host Support for Modules and Packages

7.3. Compilation Units

7.4. Package Declarations

7.4.1. Named Packages
7.4.2. Unnamed Packages
7.4.3. Package Observability and Visibility

7.5. Import Declarations

7.5.1. Single-Type-Import Declarations
7.5.2. Type-Import-on-Demand Declarations
7.5.3. Single-Static-Import Declarations
7.5.4. Static-Import-on-Demand Declarations

7.6. Top Level Class and Interface Declarations

7.7. Module Declarations

7.7.1. Dependences
7.7.2. Exported and Opened Packages
7.7.3. Service Consumption
7.7.4. Service Provision
7.7.5. Unnamed Modules
7.7.6. Observability of a Module

8. Classes

8.1. Class Declarations

8.1.1. Class Modifiers

8.1.1.1. abstract Classes
8.1.1.2. sealed, non-sealed, and final Classes
8.1.1.3. strictfp Classes
8.1.1.4. static Classes

8.1.2. Generic Classes and Type Parameters

8.1.3. Inner Classes and Enclosing Instances

8.1.4. Superclasses and Subclasses

8.1.5. Superinterfaces

8.1.6. Permitted Direct Subclasses

8.1.7. Class Body and Member Declarations

8.2. Class Members

8.3. Field Declarations

8.3.1. Field Modifiers

8.3.1.1. static Fields
8.3.1.2. final Fields
8.3.1.3. transient Fields
8.3.1.4. volatile Fields

8.3.2. Field Initialization

8.3.3. Restrictions on Field References in Initializers

8.4. Method Declarations

8.4.1. Formal Parameters

8.4.2. Method Signature

8.4.3. Method Modifiers

8.4.3.1. abstract Methods
8.4.3.2. static Methods
8.4.3.3. final Methods
8.4.3.4. native Methods
8.4.3.5. strictfp Methods
8.4.3.6. synchronized Methods

8.4.4. Generic Methods

8.4.5. Method Result

8.4.6. Method Throws

8.4.7. Method Body

8.4.8. Inheritance, Overriding, and Hiding

8.4.8.1. Overriding (by Instance Methods)
8.4.8.2. Hiding (by Class Methods)
8.4.8.3. Requirements in Overriding and Hiding
8.4.8.4. Inheriting Methods with Override-Equivalent Signatures

8.4.9. Overloading

8.5. Member Class and Interface Declarations

8.6. Instance Initializers

8.7. Static Initializers

8.8. Constructor Declarations

8.8.1. Formal Parameters

8.8.2. Constructor Signature

8.8.3. Constructor Modifiers

8.8.4. Generic Constructors

8.8.5. Constructor Throws

8.8.6. The Type of a Constructor

8.8.7. Constructor Body

8.8.7.1. Explicit Constructor Invocations

8.8.8. Constructor Overloading

8.8.9. Default Constructor

8.8.10. Preventing Instantiation of a Class

8.9. Enum Classes

8.9.1. Enum Constants
8.9.2. Enum Body Declarations
8.9.3. Enum Members

8.10. Record Classes

8.10.1. Record Components

8.10.2. Record Body Declarations

8.10.3. Record Members

8.10.4. Record Constructor Declarations

8.10.4.1. Normal Canonical Constructors
8.10.4.2. Compact Canonical Constructors

9. Interfaces

9.1. Interface Declarations

9.1.1. Interface Modifiers

9.1.1.1. abstract Interfaces
9.1.1.2. strictfp Interfaces
9.1.1.3. static Interfaces
9.1.1.4. sealed and non-sealed Interfaces

9.1.2. Generic Interfaces and Type Parameters

9.1.3. Superinterfaces and Subinterfaces

9.1.4. Permitted Direct Subclasses and Subinterfaces

9.1.5. Interface Body and Member Declarations

9.2. Interface Members

9.3. Field (Constant) Declarations

9.3.1. Initialization of Fields in Interfaces

9.4. Method Declarations

9.4.1. Inheritance and Overriding

9.4.1.1. Overriding (by Instance Methods)
9.4.1.2. Requirements in Overriding
9.4.1.3. Inheriting Methods with Override-Equivalent Signatures

9.4.2. Overloading

9.4.3. Interface Method Body

9.5. Member Class and Interface Declarations

9.6. Annotation Interfaces

9.6.1. Annotation Interface Elements

9.6.2. Defaults for Annotation Interface Elements

9.6.3. Repeatable Annotation Interfaces

9.6.4. Predefined Annotation Interfaces

9.6.4.1. @Target
9.6.4.2. @Retention
9.6.4.3. @Inherited
9.6.4.4. @Override
9.6.4.5. @SuppressWarnings
9.6.4.6. @Deprecated
9.6.4.7. @SafeVarargs
9.6.4.8. @Repeatable
9.6.4.9. @FunctionalInterface

9.7. Annotations

9.7.1. Normal Annotations
9.7.2. Marker Annotations
9.7.3. Single-Element Annotations
9.7.4. Where Annotations May Appear
9.7.5. Multiple Annotations of the Same Interface

9.8. Functional Interfaces

9.9. Function Types

10. Arrays

10.1. Array Types
10.2. Array Variables
10.3. Array Creation
10.4. Array Access
10.5. Array Store Exception
10.6. Array Initializers
10.7. Array Members
10.8. Class Objects for Arrays
10.9. An Array of Characters Is Not a String

11. Exceptions

11.1. The Kinds and Causes of Exceptions

11.1.1. The Kinds of Exceptions
11.1.2. The Causes of Exceptions
11.1.3. Asynchronous Exceptions

11.2. Compile-Time Checking of Exceptions

11.2.1. Exception Analysis of Expressions
11.2.2. Exception Analysis of Statements
11.2.3. Exception Checking

11.3. Run-Time Handling of an Exception

12. Execution

12.1. Java Virtual Machine Startup

12.1.1. Load the Class Test
12.1.2. Link Test: Verify, Prepare, (Optionally) Resolve
12.1.3. Initialize Test: Execute Initializers
12.1.4. Invoke Test.main

12.2. Loading of Classes and Interfaces

12.2.1. The Loading Process
12.2.2. Class Loader Consistency

12.3. Linking of Classes and Interfaces

12.3.1. Verification of the Binary Representation
12.3.2. Preparation of a Class or Interface
12.3.3. Resolution of Symbolic References

12.4. Initialization of Classes and Interfaces

12.4.1. When Initialization Occurs
12.4.2. Detailed Initialization Procedure

12.5. Creation of New Class Instances

12.6. Finalization of Class Instances

12.6.1. Implementing Finalization
12.6.2. Interaction with the Memory Model

12.7. Unloading of Classes and Interfaces

12.8. Program Exit

13. Binary Compatibility

13.1. The Form of a Binary

13.2. What Binary Compatibility Is and Is Not

13.3. Evolution of Packages and Modules

13.4. Evolution of Classes

13.4.1. abstract Classes

13.4.2. sealed, non-sealed, and final Classes

13.4.2.1. sealed Classes
13.4.2.2. non-sealed Classes
13.4.2.3. final Classes

13.4.3. public Classes

13.4.4. Superclasses and Superinterfaces

13.4.5. Class Type Parameters

13.4.6. Class Body and Member Declarations

13.4.7. Access to Members and Constructors

13.4.8. Field Declarations

13.4.9. final Fields and static Constant Variables

13.4.10. static Fields

13.4.11. transient Fields

13.4.12. Method and Constructor Declarations

13.4.13. Method and Constructor Type Parameters

13.4.14. Method and Constructor Formal Parameters

13.4.15. Method Result Type

13.4.16. abstract Methods

13.4.17. final Methods

13.4.18. native Methods

13.4.19. static Methods

13.4.20. synchronized Methods

13.4.21. Method and Constructor Throws

13.4.22. Method and Constructor Body

13.4.23. Method and Constructor Overloading

13.4.24. Method Overriding

13.4.25. Static Initializers

13.4.26. Evolution of Enum Classes

13.4.27. Evolution of Record Classes

13.5. Evolution of Interfaces

13.5.1. public Interfaces
13.5.2. sealed and non-sealed Interfaces
13.5.3. Superinterfaces
13.5.4. Interface Members
13.5.5. Interface Type Parameters
13.5.6. Field Declarations
13.5.7. Interface Method Declarations
13.5.8. Annotation Interfaces

14. Blocks, Statements, and Patterns

14.1. Normal and Abrupt Completion of Statements

14.2. Blocks

14.3. Local Class and Interface Declarations

14.4. Local Variable Declarations

14.4.1. Local Variable Declarators and Types
14.4.2. Local Variable Declaration Statements

14.5. Statements

14.6. The Empty Statement

14.7. Labeled Statements

14.8. Expression Statements

14.9. The if Statement

14.9.1. The if-then Statement
14.9.2. The if-then-else Statement

14.10. The assert Statement

14.11. The switch Statement

14.11.1. Switch Blocks
14.11.2. The Switch Block of a switch Statement
14.11.3. Execution of a switch Statement

14.12. The while Statement

14.12.1. Abrupt Completion of while Statement

14.13. The do Statement

14.13.1. Abrupt Completion of do Statement

14.14. The for Statement

14.14.1. The basic for Statement

14.14.1.1. Initialization of for Statement
14.14.1.2. Iteration of for Statement
14.14.1.3. Abrupt Completion of for Statement

14.14.2. The enhanced for statement

14.15. The break Statement

14.16. The continue Statement

14.17. The return Statement

14.18. The throw Statement

14.19. The synchronized Statement

14.20. The try statement

14.20.1. Execution of try-catch

14.20.2. Execution of try-finally and try-catch-finally

14.20.3. try-with-resources

14.20.3.1. Basic try-with-resources
14.20.3.2. Extended try-with-resources

14.21. The yield Statement

14.22. Unreachable Statements

14.30. Patterns

14.30.1. Kinds of Patterns
14.30.2. Pattern Matching

15. Expressions

15.1. Evaluation, Denotation, and Result

15.2. Forms of Expressions

15.3. Type of an Expression

15.4. Floating-point Expressions

15.5. Expressions and Run-Time Checks

15.6. Normal and Abrupt Completion of Evaluation

15.7. Evaluation Order

15.7.1. Evaluate Left-Hand Operand First
15.7.2. Evaluate Operands before Operation
15.7.3. Evaluation Respects Parentheses and Precedence
15.7.4. Argument Lists are Evaluated Left-to-Right
15.7.5. Evaluation Order for Other Expressions

15.8. Primary Expressions

15.8.1. Lexical Literals
15.8.2. Class Literals
15.8.3. this
15.8.4. Qualified this
15.8.5. Parenthesized Expressions

15.9. Class Instance Creation Expressions

15.9.1. Determining the Class being Instantiated

15.9.2. Determining Enclosing Instances

15.9.3. Choosing the Constructor and its Arguments

15.9.4. Run-Time Evaluation of Class Instance Creation Expressions

15.9.5. Anonymous Class Declarations

15.9.5.1. Anonymous Constructors

15.10. Array Creation and Access Expressions

15.10.1. Array Creation Expressions
15.10.2. Run-Time Evaluation of Array Creation Expressions
15.10.3. Array Access Expressions
15.10.4. Run-Time Evaluation of Array Access Expressions

15.11. Field Access Expressions

15.11.1. Field Access Using a Primary
15.11.2. Accessing Superclass Members using super

15.12. Method Invocation Expressions

15.12.1. Compile-Time Step 1: Determine Type to Search

15.12.2. Compile-Time Step 2: Determine Method Signature

15.12.2.1. Identify Potentially Applicable Methods
15.12.2.2. Phase 1: Identify Matching Arity Methods Applicable by Strict Invocation
15.12.2.3. Phase 2: Identify Matching Arity Methods Applicable by Loose Invocation
15.12.2.4. Phase 3: Identify Methods Applicable by Variable Arity Invocation
15.12.2.5. Choosing the Most Specific Method
15.12.2.6. Method Invocation Type

15.12.3. Compile-Time Step 3: Is the Chosen Method Appropriate?

15.12.4. Run-Time Evaluation of Method Invocation

15.12.4.1. Compute Target Reference (If Necessary)
15.12.4.2. Evaluate Arguments
15.12.4.3. Check Accessibility of Type and Method
15.12.4.4. Locate Method to Invoke
15.12.4.5. Create Frame, Synchronize, Transfer Control

15.13. Method Reference Expressions

15.13.1. Compile-Time Declaration of a Method Reference
15.13.2. Type of a Method Reference
15.13.3. Run-Time Evaluation of Method References

15.14. Postfix Expressions

15.14.1. Expression Names
15.14.2. Postfix Increment Operator ++
15.14.3. Postfix Decrement Operator --

15.15. Unary Operators

15.15.1. Prefix Increment Operator ++
15.15.2. Prefix Decrement Operator --
15.15.3. Unary Plus Operator +
15.15.4. Unary Minus Operator -
15.15.5. Bitwise Complement Operator ~
15.15.6. Logical Complement Operator !

15.16. Cast Expressions

15.17. Multiplicative Operators

15.17.1. Multiplication Operator *
15.17.2. Division Operator /
15.17.3. Remainder Operator %

15.18. Additive Operators

15.18.1. String Concatenation Operator +
15.18.2. Additive Operators (+ and -) for Numeric Types

15.19. Shift Operators

15.20. Relational Operators

15.20.1. Numerical Comparison Operators <, <=, >, and >=
15.20.2. The instanceof Operator

15.21. Equality Operators

15.21.1. Numerical Equality Operators == and !=
15.21.2. Boolean Equality Operators == and !=
15.21.3. Reference Equality Operators == and !=

15.22. Bitwise and Logical Operators

15.22.1. Integer Bitwise Operators &, ^, and |
15.22.2. Boolean Logical Operators &, ^, and |

15.23. Conditional-And Operator &&

15.24. Conditional-Or Operator ||

15.25. Conditional Operator ? :

15.25.1. Boolean Conditional Expressions
15.25.2. Numeric Conditional Expressions
15.25.3. Reference Conditional Expressions

15.26. Assignment Operators

15.26.1. Simple Assignment Operator =
15.26.2. Compound Assignment Operators

15.27. Lambda Expressions

15.27.1. Lambda Parameters
15.27.2. Lambda Body
15.27.3. Type of a Lambda Expression
15.27.4. Run-Time Evaluation of Lambda Expressions

15.28. switch Expressions

15.28.1. The Switch Block of a switch Expression
15.28.2. Run-Time Evaluation of switch Expressions

15.29. Constant Expressions

16. Definite Assignment

16.1. Definite Assignment and Expressions

16.1.1. Boolean Constant Expressions
16.1.2. Conditional-And Operator &&
16.1.3. Conditional-Or Operator ||
16.1.4. Logical Complement Operator !
16.1.5. Conditional Operator ? :
16.1.6. switch Expressions
16.1.7. Other Expressions of Type boolean
16.1.8. Assignment Expressions
16.1.9. Operators ++ and --
16.1.10. Other Expressions

16.2. Definite Assignment and Statements

16.2.1. Empty Statements

16.2.2. Blocks

16.2.3. Local Class and Interface Declarations

16.2.4. Local Variable Declaration Statements

16.2.5. Labeled Statements

16.2.6. Expression Statements

16.2.7. if Statements

16.2.8. assert Statements

16.2.9. switch Statements

16.2.10. while Statements

16.2.11. do Statements

16.2.12. for Statements

16.2.12.1. Initialization Part of for Statement
16.2.12.2. Incrementation Part of for Statement

16.2.13. break, yield, continue, return, and throw Statements

16.2.14. synchronized Statements

16.2.15. try Statements

16.3. Definite Assignment and Parameters

16.4. Definite Assignment and Array Initializers

16.5. Definite Assignment and Enum Constants

16.6. Definite Assignment and Anonymous Classes

16.7. Definite Assignment and Member Classes and Interfaces

16.8. Definite Assignment and Static Initializers

16.9. Definite Assignment, Constructors, and Instance Initializers

17. Threads and Locks

17.1. Synchronization

17.2. Wait Sets and Notification

17.2.1. Wait
17.2.2. Notification
17.2.3. Interruptions
17.2.4. Interactions of Waits, Notification, and Interruption

17.3. Sleep and Yield

17.4. Memory Model

17.4.1. Shared Variables
17.4.2. Actions
17.4.3. Programs and Program Order
17.4.4. Synchronization Order
17.4.5. Happens-before Order
17.4.6. Executions
17.4.7. Well-Formed Executions
17.4.8. Executions and Causality Requirements
17.4.9. Observable Behavior and Nonterminating Executions

17.5. final Field Semantics

17.5.1. Semantics of final Fields
17.5.2. Reading final Fields During Construction
17.5.3. Subsequent Modification of final Fields
17.5.4. Write-Protected Fields

17.6. Word Tearing

17.7. Non-Atomic Treatment of double and long

18. Type Inference

18.1. Concepts and Notation

18.1.1. Inference Variables
18.1.2. Constraint Formulas
18.1.3. Bounds

18.2. Reduction

18.2.1. Expression Compatibility Constraints
18.2.2. Type Compatibility Constraints
18.2.3. Subtyping Constraints
18.2.4. Type Equality Constraints
18.2.5. Checked Exception Constraints

18.3. Incorporation

18.3.1. Complementary Pairs of Bounds
18.3.2. Bounds Involving Capture Conversion

18.4. Resolution

18.5. Uses of Inference

18.5.1. Invocation Applicability Inference

18.5.2. Invocation Type Inference

18.5.2.1. Poly Method Invocation Compatibility
18.5.2.2. Additional Argument Constraints

18.5.3. Functional Interface Parameterization Inference

18.5.4. More Specific Method Inference

19. Syntax

A. Limited License Grant

List of Examples

3.10.5-1. String Literals
3.10.6-1. Text Blocks
3.10.6-2. Escape sequences in text blocks
3.10.6-3. Order of transformations on text block content
3.10.6-4. Text blocks evaluate to String
4.2.2-1. Integer Operations
4.2.4-1. Floating-point Operations
4.3.1-1. Object Creation
4.3.1-2. Primitive and Reference Identity
4.4-1. Members of a Type Variable
4.5.1-1. Unbounded Wildcards
4.5.1-2. Bounded Wildcards
4.8-1. Raw Types
4.8-2. Raw Types and Inheritance
4.11-1. Usage of a Type
4.12.3-1. Different Kinds of Variables
4.12.4-1. Final Variables
4.12.5-1. Initial Values of Variables
4.12.6-1. Type of a Variable versus Class of an Object
5.0-1. Conversions at Compile Time and Run Time
5.0-2. Conversions In Various Contexts
5.1.2-1. Widening Primitive Conversion
5.1.3-1. Narrowing Primitive Conversion
5.1.3-2. Narrowing Primitive Conversions that lose information
5.2-1. Assignment for Primitive Types
5.2-2. Assignment for Reference Types
5.2-3. Assignment for Array Types
5.5-1. Casting for Reference Types
5.5-2. Casting for Array Types
5.5-3. Casting Incompatible Types at Run Time
5.6-1. Unary Numeric Promotion
5.6-2. Binary Numeric Promotion
6.1-1. Unique Package Names
6.1-2. Unique Module Names
6.1-3. Descriptive Class Names
6.1-4. Conventional Type Variable Names
6.3-1. Scope of Class Declarations
6.3-2. Scope of Local Variable Declarations
6.4-1. Attempted Shadowing Of A Local Variable
6.4.1-1. Shadowing of a Field Declaration by a Local Variable Declaration
6.4.1-2. Shadowing of a Type Declaration by Another Type Declaration
6.5.2-1. Reclassification of Contextually Ambiguous Names
6.5.5.1-1. References to Type Parameters
6.5.5.2-1. Qualified Type Names
6.5.6.1-1. Simple Expression Names
6.5.6.1-2. References to Instance Variables
6.5.6.1-3. References to Local Variables and Formal Parameters
6.5.6.2-1. Qualified Expression Names
6.5.6.2-2. Qualifying an Expression with a Type Name
6.5.7.1-1. Simple Method Names
6.6-1. Access Control
6.6-2. Access to public Fields, Methods, and Constructors
6.6-3. Access to public and Non-public Classes
6.6-4. Access to Fields, Methods, and Constructors with Package Access
6.6-5. Access to private Fields, Methods, and Constructors
6.6.2-1. Access to protected Fields, Methods, and Constructors
6.7-1. Fully Qualified Names
6.7-2. Fully Qualified Names v. Canonical Name
7.4.2-1. Unnamed Package
7.5.1-1. Single-Type-Import
7.5.1-2. Duplicate Class Declarations
7.5.1-3. No Import of a Subpackage
7.5.1-4. Importing a Type Name that is also a Package Name
7.5.2-1. Type-Import-on-Demand
7.6-1. Conflicting Top Level Class and Interface Declarations
7.6-2. Scope of Top Level Classes and Interfaces
7.6-3. Fully Qualified Names
7.1.1-1. Resolution of requires transitive directives
8.1.1.1-1. Abstract Class Declaration
8.1.1.1-2. Abstract Class Declaration that Prohibits Subclasses
8.1.2-1. Mutually Recursive Type Variable Bounds
8.1.2-2. Nested Generic Classes
8.1.3-1. Inner Class Declarations and Static Members
8.1.3-2. Inner Class Declarations
8.1.4-1. Direct Superclasses and Subclasses
8.1.4-2. Superclasses and Subclasses
8.1.4-3. Class Depends on Itself
8.1.5-1. Illegal Superinterfaces
8.1.5-2. Superinterfaces
8.1.5-3. Illegal Multiple Inheritance of an Interface
8.1.5-4. Implementing Methods of a Superinterface
8.2-1. Use of Class Members
8.2-2. Inheritance of Class Members with Package Access
8.2-3. Inheritance of public and protected Class Members
8.2-4. Inheritance of private Class Members
8.2-5. Accessing Members of Inaccessible Classes
8.3-1. Multiply Inherited Fields
8.3-2. Re-inheritance of Fields
8.3.1.1-1. static Fields
8.3.1.1-2. Hiding of Class Variables
8.3.1.1-3. Hiding of Instance Variables
8.3.1.3-1. Persistence of transient Fields
8.3.1.4-1. volatile Fields
8.3.2-1. Field Initialization
8.3.2-2. Forward Reference to a Class Variable
8.3.3-1. Restrictions on Field References
8.4.2-1. Override-Equivalent Signatures
8.4.3.1-1. Abstract/Abstract Method Overriding
8.4.3.1-2. Abstract/Non-Abstract Overriding
8.4.3.6-1. synchronized Monitors
8.4.3.6-2. synchronized Methods
8.4.6-1. Type Variables as Thrown Exception Types
8.4.8-1. Inheritance
8.4.8.1-1. Overriding
8.4.8.1-2. Overriding
8.4.8.2-1. Invocation of Hidden Class Methods
8.4.8.3-1. Covariant Return Types
8.4.8.3-2. Unchecked Warning from Return Type
8.4.8.3-3. Incorrect Overriding because of throws
8.4.8.3-4. Erasure Affects Overriding
8.4.8.4-1. Inheritance of override-equivalent methods
8.4.9-1. Overloading
8.4.9-2. Overloading, Overriding, and Hiding
8.8-1. Constructor Declarations
8.8.7-1. Constructor Bodies
8.8.7.1-1. Restrictions on Explicit Constructor Invocation Statements
8.8.7.1-2. Qualified Superclass Constructor Invocation
8.8.9-1. Default Constructors
8.8.9-2. Accessibility of Constructors v. Classes
8.8.10-1. Preventing Instantiation via Constructor Accessibility
8.9.2-1. Enum Body Declarations
8.9.2-2. Restriction On Enum Constant Self-Reference
8.9.3-1. Iterating Over Enum Constants With An Enhanced for Loop
8.9.3-2. Switching Over Enum Constants
8.9.3-3. Enum Constants with Class Bodies
8.9.3-4. Multiple Enum Classes
9.3-1. Ambiguous Inherited Fields
9.3-2. Multiply Inherited Fields
9.3.1-1. Forward Reference to a Field
9.4.2-1. Overloading an abstract Method Declaration
9.6.1-1. Annotation Interface Declaration
9.6.1-2. Marker Annotation Interface Declaration
9.6.1-3. Single-Element Annotation Interface Declarations
9.6.2-1. Annotation Interface Declaration With Default Values
9.6.3-1. Ill-formed Containing Annotation Interface
9.6.3-2. Restricting Where Annotations May Repeat
9.6.3-3. A Repeatable Containing Annotation Interface
9.7.1-1. Normal Annotations
9.7.2-1. Marker Annotations
9.7.3-1. Single-Element Annotations
9.8-1. Functional Interfaces
9.8-2. Functional Interfaces and Erasure
9.8-3. Generic Functional Interfaces
9.9-1. Function Types
9.9-2. Generic Function Types
10.2-1. Declarations of Array Variables
10.2-2. Array Variables and Array Types
10.4-1. Array Access
10.5-1. ArrayStoreException
10.6-1. Array Initializers
10.7-1. Arrays Are Cloneable
10.7-2. Shared Subarrays After A Clone
10.8-1. Class Object Of Array
10.8-2. Array Class Objects Are Shared
11.2.3-1. Catching Checked Exceptions
11.3-1. Throwing and Catching Exceptions
12.4.1-1. Superclasses Are Initialized Before Subclasses
12.4.1-2. Only The Class That Declares static Field Is Initialized
12.4.1-3. Interface Initialization Does Not Initialize Superinterfaces
12.5-1. Evaluation of Instance Creation
12.5-2. Dynamic Dispatch During Instance Creation
13.4.4-1. Changing A Superclass
13.4.4-2. Introducing a Superclass
13.4.6-1. Changing A Class Body
13.4.6-2. Changing A Superclass
13.4.7-1. Changing Accessibility
13.4.8-1. Adding A Field Declaration
13.4.9-1. Changing A Variable To Be final
13.4.16-1. Changing A Method To Be abstract
13.4.17-1. Changing A Method To Be final
13.4.23-1. Adding An Overloaded Method
13.5.4-1. Deleting An Interface Member
13.5.7-1. Adding A Default Method
14.3-1. Local Class Declarations
14.4-1. Local Variables Declared With var
14.4.1-1. Type of Local Variables Declared With var
14.7-1. Labels and Identifiers
14.11.3-1. Fall-Through in the switch Statement
14.13-1. The do Statement
14.14-1. Enhanced for And Arrays
14.14-2. Enhanced for And Unboxing Conversion
14.15-1. The break Statement
14.16-1. The continue Statement
14.19-1. The synchronized Statement
14.20.1-1. Catching An Exception
14.20.2-1. Handling An Uncaught Exception With finally
14.21-1. The yield Statement
14.22-1. Conditional Compilation
15.7.1-1. Left-Hand Operand Is Evaluated First
15.7.1-2. Implicit Left-Hand Operand In Operator Of Compound Assigment
15.7.1-3. Abrupt Completion of Evaluation of the Left-Hand Operand
15.7.2-1. Evaluation of Operands Before Operation
15.7.4-1. Evaluation Order At Method Invocation
15.7.4-2. Abrupt Completion of Argument Expression
15.8.3-1. The this Expression
15.9.4-1. Evaluation Order and Out-Of-Memory Detection
15.10.2-1. Array Creation Evaluation
15.10.2-2. Multi-Dimensional Array Creation
15.10.2-3. OutOfMemoryError and Dimension Expression Evaluation
15.10.4-1. Array Reference Is Evaluated First
15.10.4-2. Abrupt Completion of Array Reference Evaluation
15.10.4-3. null Array Reference
15.11.1-1. Static Binding for Field Access
15.11.1-2. Receiver Variable Is Irrelevant For static Field Access
15.11.2-1. The super Expression
15.12.2-1. Method Applicability
15.12.2-2. Return Type Not Considered During Method Selection
15.12.2-3. Choosing The Most Specific Method
15.12.4.1-1. Target References and static Methods
15.12.4.1-2. Evaluation Order During Method Invocation
15.12.4.4-1. Overriding and Method Invocation
15.12.4.4-2. Method Invocation Using super
15.12.4.5-1. Invoked Method Signature Has Different Erasure Than Compile-Time Method Signature
15.17.3-1. Integer Remainder Operator
15.17.3-2. Floating-Point Remainder Operator
15.18.1-1. String Concatenation
15.18.1-2. String Concatenation and Conditionals
15.20.2-1. The Type Comparison Operator
15.26.1-1. Simple Assignment To An Array Component
15.26.2-1. Compound Assignment To An Array Component
15.26.2-2. Value Of Left-Hand Side Of Compound Assignment Is Saved Before Evaluation Of Right-Hand Side
15.29-1. Constant Expressions
16-1. Definite Assignment Considers Structure of Statements and Expressions
16-2. Definite Assignment Does Not Consider Values of Expressions
16-3. Definite Unassignment
17.4-1. Incorrectly Synchronized Programs May Exhibit Surprising Behavior
17.4.5-1. Happens-before Consistency
17.4.8-1. Happens-before Consistency Is Not Sufficient
17.5-1. final Fields In The Java Memory Model
17.5-2. final Fields For Security
17.5.3-1. Aggressive Optimization of final Fields
17.6-1. Detection of Word Tearing

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